A LoRa-Oriented Communication Approach for Reliable Data Transfer in Micro Smart Grid-Supported Groundwater Monitoring Stations

This paper presents the design and implementation of a low-power, long-range wireless communication system for groundwater monitoring, integrating LoRa-based Internet of Things (IoT) technology with a micro smart grid (MSG). The system operates in the 923.2 MHz ISM band and employs Chirp Spread Spectrum (CSS) modulation to enable reliable data transmission from remote monitoring stations to a centralized application server via a LoRa gateway. A Free-Space Path Loss (FSPL) model and link budget analysis were used to characterize the communication channel and were validated through Keysight ADS simulations and field experiments. Experimental results over a 2 km line-of-sight link achieved an average RSSI of –108 dBm and a packet delivery rate of 95%, demonstrating robust operation near the receiver sensitivity threshold. With a measured time-on-air of 452.6 ms per 30-byte packet, the proposed system minimizes active-duty cycle and energy consumption, supporting energy-efficient and timely transmission of groundwater monitoring data, including water level and micro smart grid electrical parameters. These characteristics make the system well suited for long-term autonomous deployment in energy-constrained, solar-powered groundwater monitoring applications.