Regional Patterning in Tail Vertebral Form and Function in Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus)

Previous studies have focused on documenting shape variation in the caudal vertebrae in chameleons underlying prehensile tail function. The goal of this study was to test the impact of this variation on tail function usingmultibody dynamic analysis (MDA). First, observations from dissections and 3D reconstructions generated from contrast-enhanced μCT scans were used to document regional variation in arrangement of the caudal muscles along the antero-posterior axis. Using MDA, we then tested the effect of vertebral shape geometry on biomechanical function. To address this question, four differentMDA models were built: those with a distal vertebral shape and with either a distal or proximal musculature, and reciprocally the proximal vertebral shape with either the proximal or distalmusculature. For eachmuscle configuration, we calculated the force required in each muscle group for the muscle force to balance an arbitrary external force applied to the model. The results showed that the models with a distal-type of musculature are the most efficient, regardless of vertebral shape. Our models also showed that the m. ilio-caudalis pars dorsalis is least efficient when combining the proximal vertebral shape and distal musculature, highlighting the importance of the length of the transverse process in combination with the lever-moment arm onto which muscle force is exerted. This initial model inevitably has a number of simplifications and assumptions, however its purpose is not to predict in vivo forces, but instead reveals the importance of vertebral shape and muscular arrangement on the total force the tail can generate, thus providing a better understanding of the biomechanical significance of the regional variations on tail grasping performance in chameleons.