Pedestrian interactions with automated vehicles: Does the presence of a zebra crossing affect how eHMIs and movement patterns are interpreted?

Previous research has shown that the use of an eHMI can lead pedestrians to make earlier, and more, crossing decisions in front of an automated vehicle (AV). However, there has been little exploration of the impact of crossing infrastructure or AV approach direction on pedestrian behaviour. This CAVE-based pedestrian simulator study investigated the individual, and combined, effects of a pedestrian crossing, AV approach direction, AV yielding behaviour, and a novel external Human Machine Interface (eHMI) on pedestrian crossing decisions at a four-way crossroads. Thirty eight participants took part in a multi-method study consisting of a pedestrian simulator experiment, an online interview, and a short questionnaire. The main independent variables were: (1) presence or absence of a zebra crossing; (2) the direction from which the AV approached (oncoming/right); (3) the AV’s yielding behaviour (yielding/not yielding); and (4) the presence or absence of a light-based eHMI. The AV’s yielding behaviour was the most important source of information for pedestrians, followed by the crossing infrastructure. Participants showed a greater willingness to cross in front of yielding than non-yielding vehicles, and were more likely to cross in the presence of a zebra crossing. The eHMI had the most impact in the absence of a zebra crossing, promoting earlier crossings, and encouraging more participants to cross while the approaching AV was still moving. The results of this study show the importance of eHMIs for situations associated with uncertainty about right-of-way between an AV and other road users, and highlights the interaction between formal traffic infrastructure and explicit forms of communication for future AVs. This knowledge increases our knowledge of when and where explicit communication from AVs can reduce the likelihood of pedestrian misunderstanding of AV intentions, thus reducing the likelihood of accidents occurring around these vehicles.