The importance and difficulty of policy learning across cities

Policy transfer analysis seeks to develop understandings of the processes by which knowledge about institutions, policies or delivery systems at one sector or level of governance is used in the development of such elements in another place, sector or level of governance. For example ‘Bus Rapid Transit’ is transferring rapidly around the globe both as a concept and in various system designs. Whilst it is well understood that policy transfer happens, the processes by which it occurs are far less well researched. This paper draws on two literature reviews and a series of interviews with eleven cities in Northern Europe and North America. The literature reviews have examined the frameworks for studying policy transfer and the paper begins by presenting the key elements of these frameworks. Of particular importance are the motivations for transfer (which can range from rational voluntary learning through to coercive learning where conditions are attached to funding), the agents involved in learning (from the public and private sector), the methods applied in learning and their resultant outcomes. Different methodological approaches which stem from different epistemological traditions are also described. The literature suggests particular weaknesses in understanding the process of transfer, the success of the transfer and, importantly for WCTRS, the transfer of policies between developed and developing countries. The study of eleven cities considered the processes involved in the adoption of policies which were new for the chosen city and which involved a degree of transfer from elsewhere. Innovations include planning for transit-oriented development, congestion charging, city car clubs and new public transport systems. The paper will describe the approach taken to learning across the different cities, what was learnt and how this was put into practice. The paper concludes with a discussion which suggests that the processes of policy transfer could be improved through better information about potential options, stronger networks of peers, clearer guidance on how to learn about new policies and a more transparent evidence base to use when considering transfer. Organizational culture also appears to be important to the way in which individuals see value in taking lessons from elsewhere. Transfer was less likely to occur where substantial institutional and/or cultural differences exist between cities and it is postulated that this, combined with language difficulties may limit successful transfer, particularly between developed and developing countries. The research and practitioner communities alike would benefit from an enhanced understanding of what policies work in what contexts but also how they were selected.