Effects of directional takeover request interfaces on drivers’ gaze behaviour during transitions from automation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This is a preprint and may not have undergone formal peer review

Abstract

During SAE Level 2 and 3 automated driving, drivers must resume control when the vehicle reaches the limits of its Operational Design Domain (ODD). Gaze behaviour plays a critical role during this transition, as effective information processing is essential for safely resuming manual control. Directional Takeover Requests (TORs) have been proposed to guide drivers’ attention towards safety-critical areas, thereby reducing takeover time and improving takeover quality. However, existing research on the effects of directional TORs on gaze behaviour has found inconsistent results. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to clarify effects of directional TORs on drivers’ gaze behaviour compared to non-directional TORs during transitions of control. Meta-analyses revealed that incorporating directionality into the visual interface increased both the number and duration of fixations on the TOR display. Directional TORs effectively guided drivers’ visual attention towards hazards and reduced cognitive demands, although their effects on mirror-checking and road fixations varied with interface modality and location

Metadata

Item Type:	Preprint
Authors/Creators:	Arabian, A. Goodridge, C.M. Lee, Y.T. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0363-7352 Gonçalves, R.C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5426-7654 Coyne, R. Merat, N. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4140-9948
Copyright, Publisher and Additional Information:	This item is protected by copyright. This is an open access preprint under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Keywords:	Automated vehicles, takeover request,directional interface, gaze behaviour, visual attention
Dates:	Published: 1 April 2026
Institution:	The University of Leeds
Academic Units:	The University of Leeds > Faculty of Environment (Leeds) > Institute for Transport Studies (Leeds) > ITS: Safety and Technology (Leeds) The University of Leeds > Faculty of Medicine and Health (Leeds) > School of Psychology (Leeds) The University of Leeds > Faculty of Environment (Leeds) > Institute for Transport Studies (Leeds)
Date Deposited:	12 Aug 2026 10:52
Last Modified:	12 Aug 2026 10:52
Identification Number:	10.31234/osf.io/x3c4p_v2
Open Archives Initiative ID (OAI ID):	oai:eprints.whiterose.ac.uk:243958

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https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/x3c4p_v2

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