Pan-continental assessment of socioeconomic and environmental predictors of PFAS occurrence in European rivers from a harmonised monitoring study

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent contaminants that are widely detected in surface waters and are of growing global concern. However, the factors associated with variations in PFAS contamination across space and time at a continental scale remain poorly understood. Here, we combine results from a harmonised pan-European river monitoring study with partial least squares path modelling (PLS-PM) to identify the key factors associated with PFAS contamination in European rivers. Seven high-priority PFAS were monitored at 280 sites across 93 rivers in 31 European countries, representing the PFAS footprint of approximately 309 million people. At least one PFAS was detected at 93% of monitoring locations. Highest concentrations were observed in parts of southern, southeastern and western Europe and were associated with landfills, wastewater discharges and industrial activity. Higher PFAS concentrations occurred in summer, potentially reflecting dilution-related effects associated with lower flow conditions. PLS-PM revealed that PFAS concentrations were associated with socioeconomic pressures and environmental conditions. The Human Footprint Index showed the strongest association among the socioeconomic variables examined, while electrical conductivity was the environmental variable most strongly associated with PFAS concentrations, possibly reflecting shared transport pathways with wastewater and industrial effluents. An indicative, screening-level assessment against existing regulatory threshold values suggested that PFAS concentrations at 61% of sites are of potential concern. These findings support the use of combined human pressure and hydrochemical indicators to inform more targeted, risk-based monitoring and regulatory prioritisation at large spatial scales.

Metadata

Item Type:	Article
Authors/Creators:	Li, Jun Boxall, Alistair B A https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3823-7516 Swan, Caroline (cs1593@york.ac.uk) Hoeks, Selwyn Lai, Racliffe W S Wilkinson, John L https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6993-216X Altinbag, Recep C Arrhenius, Åsa Ashauer, Roman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9579-8793 Backhaus, Thomas Baraj, Besnik Beretsou, Vasiliki G Bloor, Michelle C Bouzas-Monroy, Alejandra Campbell, Conor Cara, Magdalena Cara, Orges Ceppi, Elia Cerkvenik-Flajs, Vesna Chaumot, Arnaud Chirsir, Parviel Coll, Claudia Crettaz-Minaglia, Melina C De Schamphelaere, Karel Deng, Qian Džeferagić, Ahmed Fatta-Kassinos, Despo Fenner, Kathrin Frigerio, Gianfranco Frøkjær, Emil E Gauchotte-Lindsay, Caroline Georgsdóttir, Sandra D Gibb, Stuart W Gombač, Mitja Graves, Lana Grung, Merete Guiu, Maider Guls, Hermann D Halldórsson, Halldór P Hansen, Martin Hiller, Edgar Hirsch, Tina Hofmann, Thilo Hrelja, Edin Jartun, Morten Järvinen, Päivi P Komolo, Jolly Koziol, Krystyna A Kümmerer, Klaus Leekitratanapisan, Warich Lertxundi, Unax Lyberatos, Gerasimos Lymperopoulou, Theopisti Manaia, Célia M McGimpsey, Nicole Nanusha, Mulatu Y Niemi, Lydia M Niță, Mihai R Nunes, Olga C O'Flynn, Dylan Oldenkamp, Rik (or622@york.ac.uk) Olsson, Oliver Onay, Turgut T Orive, Gorka Osipovs, Sergejs Oswald, Peter Oswaldova, Martina Palm, Wolf-Ulrich Patrolecco, Luisa Pedusaar, Tiia Pescatore, Tanita Polesello, Stefano Popa, Ana Maria Posselt, Malte Puljko, Ana Pučkins, Aleksandrs Radeva, Kalina R Rauseo, Jasmin Recoura-Massaquant, Rémi Redondo-Hasselerharm, Paula E Regan, Fiona Rico, Andreu Robison-Smith, Charlotte Rusconi, Marianna Sarntaridou, Magdalini Schneider, Jonas R Schymanski, Emma L Sikanen, Tiina M Snell, Anna Snell, David A Spataro, Francesca Špirová, Veronika Stockhausen, Martin Szumińska, Danuta Taggart, Mark A Tarring, Eve C Tezel, Ulas Tong, Lei Udiković-Kolić, Nikolina Vardar, Suat Vymazal, Jan Vânău, Gabriel O Wassmur, Britt White, Blánaid Zarfl, Christiane
Copyright, Publisher and Additional Information:	This is an author-produced version of the published paper. Uploaded in accordance with the University’s Research Publications and Open Access policy.
Dates:	Accepted: 10 July 2026 Published (online): 18 July 2026 Published: 15 October 2026
Institution:	The University of York
Academic Units:	The University of York > Faculty of Sciences (York) > Environment and Geography (York) The University of York > Faculty of Sciences (York) > Biology (York)
Date Deposited:	22 Jul 2026 09:00
Last Modified:	10 Aug 2026 23:09
Published Version:	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2026.126481
Status:	Published online
Refereed:	Yes
Identification Number:	10.1016/j.watres.2026.126481
Open Archives Initiative ID (OAI ID):	oai:eprints.whiterose.ac.uk:243575

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Pan-continental assessment of socioeconomic and environmental predictors of PFAS occurrence in European rivers from a harmonised monitoring study

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