Native pollinators in Nepal:Their importance, threats, and conservation needs

Native pollinators are declining worldwide due to stressors like agricultural intensification, habitat loss, and climate change. Nepal - an agriculturally dependent country that relies heavily on pollinator-dependent crops - faces these same pressures, yet little is known about their impacts on local pollinators. This study assesses the conservation status of native pollinators in Nepal and identifies key risks to their populations across sub-national regions. We combined a systematic literature review, lead-farmer surveys, and secondary data analysis to quantify household pollinator dependence in three districts representing distinct agroclimatic zones and to evaluate the severity of different risks facing pollinators. Results show habitat loss and climate change are the primary threats nationwide. Pesticide use emerged as a major concern in lower-altitude areas where agricultural intensity is high, while climate change posed a greater risk at higher altitudes where climatic changes are occurring more rapidly. Additional pressures included invasive species, predators, parasites, and pathogens, and poor agricultural practices. Small-scale farmers and communities living in mountainous regions were most vulnerable to pollinator declines, as they rely most heavily on pollinator-dependent crops for food and income. Secondary data showed sharp increases in pesticide imports, primary forest loss, and changing temperatures, highlighting growing risks to pollinators in Nepal. Our findings suggest pollinator declines are likely widespread in Nepal, threatening agricultural yields, household income, and nutrition—especially in high-altitude smallholder systems. These results underscore the urgent need for region-specific pollinator conservation strategies to safeguard food security, livelihoods, and biodiversity. This research provides critical insights for stakeholders working on pollinator conservation and sustainable development in Nepal.