Water quality for citizen confidence: The implementation process of 2020 EU Drinking Water Directive in Nordic countries

The European Union Drinking Water Directive aims to protect human health and promote safe water consumption. The 2020 revision, particularly Article 17, directed member states to provide public access to information on drinking water. This update responded to citizen initiatives calling for the active participation of end-users in water services and greater transparency from water utilities. Difficulties in implementing previous versions of the directive highlighted divergences between policy purposes, local capacity to implement, and public response. These divergences are explored through eight case studies of Nordic countries and analysed using the policy implementation framework. We employed a mixed-method, multi-stage approach. Policy formulation was characterized through a literature review, policy design by synthesizing legislative instruments, and policy implementation via an analysis of delivery behaviour based on interviews. We identified the main drivers of the directive’s update and contrasted these with the ongoing implementation process in the countries studied. Our results point to a different and highly contextual implementation, which differs from the primary drivers of the policy update, namely, the establishment of public confidence in water services.