Farmers’ decision processes about biocontrol innovation adoption: dynamics surrounding push-pull technology in Western Kenya

Smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) face increasing challenges from pests and climate change, among other issues. In response to these challenges, international agricultural research for development (R4D) investment is often focused on developing and scaling up techniques and technologies that bolster resilience. However, such approaches are often technocentric and follow linear assumptions of innovation diffusion and adoption, which overlook the complex realities that influence smallholder farmers’ dynamic decisions and engagement with novel techniques. This study used qualitative ethnographic methods to explore the experiences, knowledge construction, motivations, and decision-making of farmers in Western Kenya regarding the extensively researched push-pull technology (PPT). Findings reveal that motives for practicing PPT evolve as farmers respond to emerging realities. Farmers’ practices were motivated by factors such as food culture, resource availability, market demand, social networks, and risk management. Farmers often modify and adapt PPT components rather than simply adopting the practice as taught or shown. Contextual factors such as health, livestock ownership, land tenure, access to information and inputs, cost/benefit trade-offs, and social dynamics interact in complex ways. Ultimately, innovation unfolds as a dynamic process requiring inclusive participation, flexibility for local adaptation, and long-term collaboration with farmers as partners in finding solutions.