Siddiqi, K. orcid.org/0000-0003-1529-7778, Welch, C., Huque, R. orcid.org/0000-0002-7616-9596 et al. (10 more authors) (2024) The effect of adult smoking behavior on children’s exposure to secondhand smoke. An analysis based on salivary cotinine levels among children in Dhaka and Karachi. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 26 (11). ISSN 1462-2203
Abstract
Introduction
Exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS) risks children’s health. However, biomarkers are rarely used to study SHS exposure among children in low- and middle-income countries.
Aims and Methods
We analyzed cross-sectional data collected between March and November 2022 for a cluster-randomized controlled trial investigating a Smoke-Free Intervention in 2769 children aged 9–15 in 74 schools (34 in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and 40 in Karachi, Pakistan). Children’s saliva was tested for the concentration of cotinine—a highly sensitive and specific biomarker for SHS exposure. Based on their reports, children’s homes were categorized as Nonsmoking Homes (NSH) when residents were nonsmokers; Smoke-free Homes (SFH) when residents and visitors smoked outdoors only; and Smoke-permitted Homes (SPH) when either residents or visitors smoked indoors. We compared cotinine concentrations across these home types and the two cities using a proportional odds model.
Results
Overall, 95.7% of children (92% in Dhaka; and 99.4% in Karachi) had cotinine levels between 0.1 and 12 ng/mL, indicating SHS exposure. Median cotinine levels were higher in Karachi (0.58 ng/mL, IQR 0.37 to 0.93) than in Dhaka (0.27 ng/mL, IQR 0.16 to 0.49). Median cotinine concentration was also higher among children living in SPH than those in either NSH or SFH; with absolute differences of approximately 0.1–0.3 and 0.05 ng/mL, respectively.
Conclusions The level of SHS exposure in Dhaka and Karachi indicates widespread and unrestricted smoking. Smoking restrictions in households and enforcement of smoking bans are urgently needed.
Implications
The high levels of SHS exposure in children living in SFH suggest parental behavior to hide their smoking and/or exposure in private vehicles or public spaces. It is important to advocate for SFH and cars to protect children from SHS exposure. However, these initiatives alone may not be enough. There is a need to enforce smoking bans in enclosed public places and transportation, as well as extend these bans to playgrounds, parks, fairgrounds, and other public spaces that children frequently visit. It is essential to complement smoking restrictions with tobacco cessation advice and support in these settings.
Metadata
Item Type: | Article |
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Authors/Creators: |
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Copyright, Publisher and Additional Information: | © The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. |
Keywords: | CLASS III Trial Team |
Dates: |
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Institution: | The University of Sheffield |
Academic Units: | The University of Sheffield > Faculty of Science (Sheffield) > Department of Psychology (Sheffield) |
Funding Information: | Funder Grant number MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL MR/T004959/1 |
Depositing User: | Symplectic Sheffield |
Date Deposited: | 07 Aug 2024 09:34 |
Last Modified: | 24 Feb 2025 16:49 |
Status: | Published |
Publisher: | Oxford University Press (OUP) |
Refereed: | Yes |
Identification Number: | 10.1093/ntr/ntae130 |
Related URLs: | |
Sustainable Development Goals: | |
Open Archives Initiative ID (OAI ID): | oai:eprints.whiterose.ac.uk:215569 |