Performance of SK-Gd’s upgraded real-time supernova monitoring system

Abstract

Among multimessenger observations of the next Galactic core-collapse supernova, Super-Kamiokande (SK) plays a critical role in detecting the emitted supernova neutrinos, determining the direction to the supernova (SN), and notifying the astronomical community of these observations in advance of the optical signal. In 2022, SK has increased the gadolinium dissolved in its water target (SK-Gd) and has achieved a Gd concentration of 0.033%, resulting in enhanced neutron detection capability, which in turn enables more accurate determination of the supernova direction. Accordingly, SK-Gd's real-time supernova monitoring system has been upgraded. SK_SN Notice, a warning system that works together with this monitoring system, was released on 2021 December 13, and is available through GCN Notices. When the monitoring system detects an SN-like burst of events, SK_SN Notice will automatically distribute an alarm with the reconstructed direction to the supernova candidate within a few minutes. In this paper, we present a systematic study of SK-Gd's response to a simulated Galactic SN. Assuming a supernova situated at 10 kpc, neutrino fluxes from six supernova models are used to characterize SK-Gd's pointing accuracy using the same tools as the online monitoring system. The pointing accuracy is found to vary from 3° to 7° depending on the models. However, if the supernova is closer than 10 kpc, SK_SN Notice can issue an alarm with three-degree accuracy, which will benefit follow-up observations by optical telescopes with large fields of view.

Metadata

Item Type:	Article
Authors/Creators:	Kashiwagi, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3926-8333 Abe, K. Bronner, C. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9555-6033 Hayato, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8683-5038 Hiraide, K. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1229-9452 Hosokawa, K. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8766-3629 Ieki, K. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7791-5044 Ikeda, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4177-5828 Kameda, J. Kanemura, Y. Kaneshima, R. Kataoka, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9090-4801 Miki, S. Mine, S. Miura, M. Moriyama, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7630-2839 Nakano, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1572-3888 Nakahata, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7783-9080 Nakayama, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9145-714X Noguchi, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3113-3127 Sato, K. Sekiya, H. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9034-0436 Shiba, H. Shimizu, K. Shiozawa, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0520-3520 Sonoda, Y. Suzuki, Y. Takeda, A. Takemoto, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2232-7277 Tanaka, H. Yano, T. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5320-1709 Han, S. Kajita, T. Okumura, K. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5523-2808 Tashiro, T. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1440-3049 Tomiya, T. Wang, X. Yoshida, S. Fernandez, P. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9034-1930 Labarga, L. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6395-9142 Ospina, N. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8404-1808 Zaldivar, B. Pointon, B.W. Kearns, E. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1781-150X Raaf, J.L. Wan, L. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5524-6137 Wester, T. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6668-7595 Bian, J. Griskevich, N.J. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4409-3184 Locke, S. Smy, M.B. Sobel, H.W. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5073-4043 Takhistov, V. Yankelevich, A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5963-3123 Hill, J. Jang, M.C. Lee, S.H. Moon, D.H. Park, R.G. Bodur, B. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8454-271X Scholberg, K. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7007-2021 Walter, C.W. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2035-2380 Beauchêne, A. Drapier, O. Giampaolo, A. Mueller, T.A. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2743-4741 Santos, A.D. Paganini, P. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9580-683X Quilain, B. Rogly, R. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2530-5217 Nakamura, T. Jang, J.S. Machado, L.N. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7578-4183 Learned, J.G. Choi, K. Iovine, N. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7965-2252 Cao, S. Anthony, L.H.V. Martin, D. Prouse, N.W. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1037-3081 Scott, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1759-4453 Sztuc, A.A. Uchida, Y. Berardi, V. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8387-4568 Catanesi, M.G. Radicioni, E. Calabria, N.F. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3590-2808 Langella, A. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6273-3558 De Rosa, G. Collazuol, G. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7876-6124 Iacob, F. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3582-3819 Mattiazzi, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3900-6816 Ludovici, L. Gonin, M. Périssé, L. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3444-4454 Pronost, G. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6429-5387 Fujisawa, C. Maekawa, Y. Nishimura, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7666-3789 Okazaki, R. Akutsu, R. Friend, M. Hasegawa, T. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2967-1954 Ishida, T. Kobayashi, T. Jakkapu, M. Matsubara, T. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3187-6710 Nakadaira, T. Nakamura, K. Oyama, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1689-0285 Sakashita, K. Sekiguchi, T. Tsukamoto, T. Bhuiyan, N. Burton, G.T. Di Lodovico, F. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3952-2175 Gao, J. Goldsack, A. Katori, T. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9429-9482 Migenda, J. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5350-8049 Ramsden, R.M. https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3298-6593 Xie, Z. Zsoldos, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0142-4844 Suzuki, A.T. Takagi, Y. Takeuchi, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4665-2210 Zhong, H. Feng, J. Feng, L. Hu, J.R. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2149-9691 Hu, Z. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0353-8792 Kawaue, M. Kikawa, T. Mori, M. Nakaya, T. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3040-4674 Wendell, R.A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0969-4681 Yasutome, K. Jenkins, S.J. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0982-8141 McCauley, N. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5982-5125 Mehta, P. Tarrant, A. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8750-4759 Fukuda, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2660-1958 Itow, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8198-1968 Menjo, H. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8466-1938 Ninomiya, K. Yoshioka, Y. Lagoda, J. Lakshmi, S.M. Mandal, M. Mijakowski, P. Prabhu, Y.S. Zalipska, J. Jia, M. Jiang, J. Jung, C.K. Shi, W. Wilking, M.J. Yanagisawa, C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6490-1743 Harada, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3273-946X Hino, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7480-463X Ishino, H. Koshio, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0437-8505 Nakanishi, F. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4408-6929 Sakai, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2190-0062 Tada, T. Tano, T. Ishizuka, T. Barr, G. Barrow, D. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5844-709X Cook, L. Samani, S. Wark, D. Holin, A. Nova, F. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0769-9921 Jung, S. https://orcid.org/0009-0007-8244-8106 Yang, B.S. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5877-6096 Yang, J.Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3624-3659 Yoo, J. Fannon, J.E.P. Kneale, L. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4087-1244 Malek, M. McElwee, J.M. Thiesse, M.D. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0775-250X Thompson, L.F. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6911-4776 Wilson, S.T. Okazawa, H. Kim, S.B. Kwon, E. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5653-2880 Seo, J.W. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2719-2079 Yu, I. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1567-5548 Ichikawa, A.K. Nakamura, K.D. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3302-7325 Tairafune, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2140-7171 Nishijima, K. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1830-4251 Eguchi, A. Nakagiri, K. Nakajima, Y. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2744-5216 Shima, S. Taniuchi, N. Watanabe, E. Yokoyama, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2742-0251 de Perio, P. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0741-4471 Fujita, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0281-2243 Jesús-Valls, C. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0154-2456 Martens, K. Tsui, K.M. Vagins, M.R. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0569-0480 Xia, J. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1412-092X Kuze, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8858-8440 Izumiyama, S. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0808-8022 Matsumoto, R. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4995-9242 Ishitsuka, M. Ito, H. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1029-5730 Ommura, Y. Shigeta, N. Shinoki, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9486-6256 Yamauchi, K. https://orcid.org/0009-0000-0112-0619 Yoshida, T. Gaur, R. Gousy-Leblanc, V. Hartz, M. Konaka, A. Li, X. Chen, S. Xu, B.D. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5135-1319 Zhang, B. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7832-2972 Posiadala-Zezula, M. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5154-5348 Boyd, S.B. Edwards, R. Hadley, D. Nicholson, M. O’Flaherty, M. Richards, B. Ali, A. Jamieson, B. Amanai, S. Marti, L. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5172-9796 Minamino, A. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6510-7106 Suzuki, S.
Copyright, Publisher and Additional Information:	© 2024 The Authors. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Dates:	Published: 19 July 2024 Published (online): 19 July 2024 Accepted: 17 May 2024
Institution:	The University of Sheffield
Academic Units:	The University of Sheffield > Faculty of Science (Sheffield) > Department of Physics and Astronomy (Sheffield)
Depositing User:	Symplectic Sheffield
Date Deposited:	22 Jul 2024 11:23
Last Modified:	22 Jul 2024 11:23
Published Version:	http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ad4d8e
Status:	Published
Publisher:	American Astronomical Society
Refereed:	Yes
Identification Number:	10.3847/1538-4357/ad4d8e
Open Archives Initiative ID (OAI ID):	oai:eprints.whiterose.ac.uk:215040

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Performance of SK-Gd’s upgraded real-time supernova monitoring system

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