Earth system governance for transformation towards sustainable deltas: What does research into socio-eco-technological systems tell us?

Increased river flows and sea level rise in a changing climate are of great concern in deltas and makes sustainability particularly important for delta societies. This article reviews current approaches to assess delta sustainability, results of these assessments and what they mean for policies regarding deltas. We particularly ask whether deltas need transformations in order for delta living to be feasible in the future. The reviewed literature is mostly based on socio-ecological systems theory with small contributions from socio-technical systems theory, and struggles to take account of all relevant interrelationships. The technological interventions that shape the relationships between societies and delta environments should be highlighted by considering deltas as complex socio-ecological-cum-technical systems, in part because technological interventions are the most feasible societal response to secure delta living in the short term. The reviewed research suggests that most deltas are locked-in to an irreversible path towards unsustainability. We examine the pathways for transformation offered by socio-ecological systems and socio-technical systems research, and we assess whether they are technically and politically sufficient, feasible and acceptable to achieve the required transformations. We conclude that while the experimentation advocated in research may support local adjustments, their up-scaling to delta level is challenged by political disagreement and societal resistance.