Bundling ecosystem services for detecting their interactions driven by large-scale vegetation restoration: enhanced services while depressed synergies

Ecosystem service (ES) bundles can facilitate comprehensive understanding of the spatial configurations and interactions of multiple ESs across large-scale landscapes. They are critical for informing policy and improving ecosystem management. The spatial dimension of ES bundles has been addressed in recent research but little work has considered the temporal changes of ES bundles. This paper uses a case study in the Loess Plateau, the core area of vegetation restoration in China, to explore changes in ES spatial distributions, bundle types and multiple ES interactions in a period of rapid vegetation restoration between 2000 and 2015. Measurable proxies, biophysical indicators and the InVEST model were used to quantify 10 ESs. We found that (1) most of the ESs were improved, especially provisioning services and carbon sequestration. (2) There is a steady tradeoff between provisioning services and most regulating services, while the impacts of vegetation restoration on agricultural production were small. (3) The synergies among ESs were weakened, implying the presence of subtle functional ES interdependencies. (4) Changes in the bundling patterns between 2000 and 2015 revealed heightened gaps among ESs due to the upsurge of carbon sequestration and deterioration of the baseflow regulation. This research provides a new perspective for understanding the interactions between multiple ESs with regional vegetation restoration activities. Ecological restoration programmes play an important role in enhancing ESs, but they may also lead to expanded gaps between ESs. Baseflow regulation could be included as a key indicator to support a comprehensive understanding of the impacts of restoration interventions. The ES bundle framework is able to capture changes over time of the ES interactions across a large-scale landscape and facilitates informed ES management.