Food safety vulnerability: Neighbourhood determinants of non-compliant establishments in England and Wales

This paper utilises logistic regression to identify ecological determinants of non-compliant food outlets in England and Wales. We consider socio-demographic, urbanness and business type features to better define vulnerable populations based on the characteristics of the area within which they live. We find a clear gradient of association between deprivation and non-compliance, with outlets in the most deprived areas 25% less likely (OR = 0.75) to meet hygiene standards than those in the least deprived areas. Similarly, we find outlets located in conurbation areas have a lower probability of compliance (OR = 0.678) than establishments located in rural and affluent areas. Therefore, individuals living in these neighbourhoods can be considered more situationally vulnerable than those living in rural and non-deprived areas. Whilst comparing compliance across business types, we find that takeaways and sandwich shops (OR = 0.504) and convenience retailers (OR = 0.905) are significantly less likely to meet hygiene standards compared to restaurants. This is particularly problematic for populations who may be unable to shop outside their immediate locality. Where traditional food safety interventions have failed to consider the prospect of increased risk based on proximity to unsafe and unhygienic food outlets, we re-assess the meaning of vulnerability by considering the type of neighbourhoods within which non-compliant establishments are located. In-lieu of accurate foodborne illness data, we recommend prioritised inspections for outlets in urban and deprived areas. Particularly takeaways, sandwich shops and small convenience retailers.